Current approaches to planning and management are inadequate for achieving sustainability. Complexities, uncertainties, and interconnections among natural and social systems preclude the possibility of predicting and controlling future outcomes, yet these qualities are implicit in many planning approaches. The rational-comprehensive model arising from the engineering paradigm, is increasingly questioned, but continues to underlie many planning processes. Achieving sustainability requires flexible, adaptive planning that is capable of recognizing uncertain futures, synergistic possibilities, differing perspectives, and multiple values.
In response to these concerns, concepts from 'new' systems thinking are considered in this thesis. A distinction is made between two types of self-producing systems. Autopoietic (self-producing) systems are autonomous units with self-defined boundaries that tend to be centrally controlled, homeostatic, and predictable. Sympoietic (collectively-producing) systems** do not have self-defined spatial or temporal boundaries. Information and control are distributed among components. The systems are evolutionary and have the potential for surprising change. Since they cannot be identified by boundaries, sympoietic systems must be identified by the self-organizing factors involved in their generation.
The contrast between the two system types provides a useful heuristic for identifying and conceptualizing many complex systems that are relevant to planning for sustainability. The different characteristics illustrate the need to apply different approaches in different situations. The characteristics also illustrate that many of the systems we must cope with are sympoietic, although they have mistakenly been interpreted as autopoietic.
A variety of examples including small groups, western science, and national parks are used to illustrate the concepts and their application. The latter examples, in particular, are used to consider the implications of these systems concepts for planning. Such critique is relevant to the systems of concern to planning as well as the planning systems themselves. In addition, the concepts illustrate possibilities for developing more appropriate approaches. Both critiques and possibilities are discussed.
This thesis is primarily conceptual and makes no attempt to draw definitive conclusions. Its primary value is in presentation and description of two contrasting lenses that provide alternative views of the world, forcing recognition of system properties often neglected. In addition, its value lies in the system concepts described, the consequent potential for conceptualization and critique of many intractable situations, and, perhaps most particularly, for the possibility of considering new directions to pursue.
** The spelling of 'sympoiesis' here is different from that in the hard copy of my thesis. My initial spelling - 'synpoietic' has been altered to account for more 'correct' linguistic considerations. (With thanks to Ted Creese for noting the difference.)