Adaptability refers to a systems' ability to change itself in order to accommodate changes, especially surprising changes, in its environment. In this thesis the term is used specifically to refer to an element of system sustainability. See maintainability and Section 1.3.3.
Adaptive planning refers to an integration of planning and management in which learning opportunities are generated at the design stage by incorporating experimentation, monitoring, and re-evaluation. The point it to ensure a more flexible and responsive planning system that is able to adapt to changing circumstances. See p 132 for discussion.
Autopoietic systems are autonomous, self-producing
systems with self-defined boundaries. Cells and organisms are examples.
As self-producing systems they contain all the organizational information
necessary for their own development and continuation. However, they depend
on structural inputs. The systems tend to be homeostatic, have finite trajectories,
are relatively predictable and rely on transmitted self-organization.
The term originated from Maturana and Varela (1980, also
Varela et al. 1974). Their definition is quoted on p 27, and their
identification key in Box 2.2 (p 28). Table 2.1 (p 30) lists autopoietic
characteristics in contrast with synpoietic characteristics. Definition
and characteristics are discussed in Section 2.2.
Creative self-organization refers to the process by which structures emerge at critical points of dynamic tension generated by counteracting global-local influences and feedback. The behaviours and structures that are created are not necessarily sustainable or self-producing. See self-organization and transmitted self-organization, and see p 53.
Emergent characteristics, properties, or systems arise unexpectedly from complex interactions among components and their relations. With respect to systems, the term refers to 'wholes that are greater than the sum of their parts.' They cannot be predicted by understanding the characteristics or properties of the components, but require knowledge of the whole system in order to be understood. See discussion p 48.
Future causality refers to the potential causal
behaviour of a system that can preconceive its future self and alter current
circumstances to direct toward its preconception.
The term is taken from Campbell (1985). See Sections
2.4.4 and 4.4.1.
Global-local influences are key self-organizing factors that, through their counteracting effects, create pattern. Global refers to influences that impose a coherent direction on all components/entities. They are often long-range and unrecognized, but are not necessary influences that occur on a planetary scale. Local refers to blockages or constraints that interrupt or impede the components/entities influenced by global directions. See discussion in Section 2.3.2.
Heuristics are devices, lenses, and/or tools that serve to indicate or point out aspects or characteristics of the world to aid in understanding.
Holarchy is a set of nesting or overlapping systems (or holons). The term is used in place of hierarchy to avoid the value connotations of 'top' and 'bottom' that are typically associated with the latter.
Local influences See global-local influences and discussion in Section 2.3.2.
Maintainability is used in this thesis as an element of system sustainability, and refers to a systems' ability to remain undamaged, maintaining its identity, despite changes in its environment. See adaptability and Section 1.3.3.
Natural system is used in this thesis to refer to biophysical systems that have relatively little influence from human socio-cultural systems.
Negative feedback refers to the outcome of a system that feeds-back into the system as input. It has a moderating effect on future output. See positive feedback and discussion on p 49.
Normal science refers to the puzzle-solving activity, based on particular paradigms, that is the most common aspect of scientific practice. It occurs between periods of upheaval and revolution that indicate the development of new paradigms. The term is from Kuhn (1970).
Organizational closure refers to the degree
of self-containment a system has with respect to its pattern of organization.
A system can be organizationally closed, open or ajar.
A system which organizes the relations among its components in such a manner
as to ensure the continuation of its own organization is organizationally
closed. A system which relies completely on external sources for determining
its pattern of organization is organizationally open. One which
relies on external sources, yet restricts these inputs in a self-determined
manner, is organizationally ajar. In a general sense, the term refers
to the informational aspect of systems.
The term and concept of organizational closure originate
with Maturana and Varela (e.g. 1980). However, the term organizationally
ajar originates with Dempster (1995).
See p 30 and Figure 2.4 (p 31) and comparative discussion
in Section 2.2.1.
Paradigm is typically used in reference to a basic set of beliefs that guide action. The term originated with Kuhn (1970). The considerable variety in meaning could be a result of his ambiguous use of the term. See discussion on Western science (p 79-83), especially Box 3.2 (p 80).
Participatory planning refers to a variety of approaches to planning that place emphasis on the inclusion, into the planning process, of actors relevant to the planning situation. In this thesis the term is applied to transactive and advocacy planning, as well as other approaches. See p 132 for discussion.
Pattern of organization of a system is the set of relations among components that define a system as a specific type of system. The phrase is synonymous with Maturana and Varela's (e.g. 1980) term "organization." I find the latter to be confusing when transferring the concept into social systems, and consequently follow Capra (1996) in using pattern of organization. See structure, and organizational closure, and see p 29.
Poiesis refers to the continuously recurring production between pattern of organization and structure in autopoietic and synpoietic systems. I use this term in preference to self-producing since the degree of 'self' production in synpoietic systems is somewhat ambiguous. See discussion p 29-31 and Figure 2.4 (p 31).
Points of dynamic tension refer to points where the various influences on a system counteract each other so that no factor fully controls system behaviour. It is at these points that emergent structures arise.
Positive feedback refers to outcome of a system that feeds-back into the system as input. It has an amplifying effect on future output. See negative feedback and discussion on p 49.
Post normal science describes an approach to problem-solving that recognizes the value laden context and inherent uncertainty of science. The approach emphasizes the need for quality assurance and expansion of the peer community. The term originates with Funtowicz and Ravetz (1992, also 1993, 1994) as a contrast to normal science. See discussion on Western science (p 79-83), and further discussion on p120-21.
Rational-comprehensive planning refers to the conventional step-wise planning procedure that relies on an expert-driven problem solving approach. As used in this thesis it refers to the stricter approach that has arisen from the engineering paradigm. See Section 5.2.
Self-organization typically refers to a process by which systems organize themselves without external direction, manipulation or control. The term is difficult to define precisely because it is used in reference to a variety of processes generating a variety of systems. See Section 2.3, especially p 41.
Self-organizing systems are defined in this thesis as emergent systems generated by the interaction of global and local influences. They arise at critical points of tension that reflect a balancing among various interacting influences, including feedback. See Section 2.3.
Self-production refers to the continuously recurring production between system pattern of organization and system structure in autopoietic systems. See poiesis and discussion in Section 2.2, especially p 29 and 31.
Structural coupling refers to a system's structural relationship with its environment. This relation will determine a system's responses to environmental disturbances or triggers. Continued poiesis depends on a structure's ability to respond suitably to its environment. See p 29-30 and comparative discussion in Section 2.2.1.
Structure of a system is the actual relations and components which constitute a particular system in some domain, for example the physical domain. (Compare to pattern of organization). See p 30.
Synpoietic systems are collectively-producing systems
that do not have self-defined temporal or spatial boundaries. Ecosystems
and cultural systems are examples. They are self-producing to some degree,
but rely on the addition of new information as a source of adaptive potential.
The systems are evolutionary and are characterized by continuing complex
relations among system components. Though the systems have pattern and
demonstrate a dynamic balance, they are inherently unpredictable.
The term originated in Dempster (1995) as a contrast
to autopoietic systems. Table 2.1 (p 30) lists synpoietic characteristics,
in contrast with autopoietic characteristics. Definition and characteristics
are discussed in Section 2.2.
System is a term open to a variety of meanings.
In the most general sense, Weinberg (1975, p 52) states: "A system is a
way of looking at the world." Variations arise from different "ways of
looking." Systems are typically defined as a set of components and their
relations that describe some sense of whole. I place a different emphasis,
defining a system as a set of relations that carries some sense of connectedness.
See Section 2.1 and Figure 2.1 (p 26) for discussion
and variations.
Transmitted self-organization refers to the self-organizing ability of autopoietic systems which has been codified and passed on through generations. Although systems may have begun through creative self-organization, they have reached a level of complexity, through subsequent generations, that preclude the possibility for creative self-organization of another similar entity. See creative self-organization and p 53.